JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE

JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE

13th April 2019 marks the hundredth anniversary of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar.

How Events Unfolded

• Both Extremists and the moderate factionof the Indian National Congress supported the British efforts during World War 1 in hope that, British will grant self-government to India after the war.
• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms 1919 proved to be a mere eyewash in the name of self-government. Congress said that the reforms are “disappointing” and “unsatisfactory”.
• The government now armed itself with extraordinary powers to suppress any voice against the reforms and passed Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act.

Rowlatt Act

• This act was passed on the recommendations of Sedition Committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt.
• This act had been hurriedly passed in the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
• It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

Impact Of World War I On India

Response to Gandhi's Call

• Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws,which would start with a hartal on 6 April 1919.
• But before it could be launched, there were large-scale violent, anti-British demonstrations in Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Ahmedabad, etc. '
• Especially in Punjab, the situation became explosive due to wartime repression,forcible recruitments, and ravages of disease.
• In towns across North and West India, life came to a standstill, as shops shut down and schools closed in response to the bandh call.
• During the intense anti-British demonstrations, Punjab also witnessed the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

• On April 9, 1919, two nationalist leaders, Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal, were arrested by the British officials without any provocation except that they had addressed protest meetings, and taken to some unknown destination.
• This caused resentment among the Indian protestors who came out in thousands on April 10 to show their solidarity with their leaders.
• Soon the protests turned violent because the police resorted to firing in which some of the protestors were killed. To curb any future protest government put martial law in place and law and order in Punjab was handed over to Brigadier-General Dyer.
• On 13th April, Baisakhi day, a large crowd of people mostly from neighboring villages, unaware of the prohibitory orders in the Amritsar gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh.
• Brigadier- General Dyer arrived on the scene with his men. The troops surrounded the gathering under orders from General Dyer and blocked the only exit point and opened fire on the unarmed crowd killing more than 1000 unarmed men, women, and children.

Hunter Commission

• The government formed a committee of inquiry to investigate the Jallianwala Bagh shootings.
• On October 14, 1919, the Government of India announced the formation of theDisorders Inquiry Committee.
• The committee was commonly known as Hunter Commission after the name of chairman, Lord William Hunter. It also had Indian members.
• In the final report submitted in March 1920, the committee unanimously condemned Dyer’s actions.
• However, the Hunter Committee did not impose any penal or disciplinary action against General Dyer.

Nationalist Response

• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
• Mahatma Gandhi gave up the title of Kaiser-i-Hind, bestowed by the British for his work during the Boer War.
• Gandhi was overwhelmed by the atmosphere of total violence and withdrew the movement on April 18, 1919.
• Gandhi was initially hesitant to act, but he soon began organizing his first large-scale and sustained nonviolent protest (satyagraha) campaign, the non-cooperation movement(1920–22), which thrust him to prominence in the Indian nationalist struggle.
• The Indian National Congress appointed its own non-official committee that included Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Abbas Tyabji, M.R. Jayakar, and Gandhi to look into the shootings.
  • Congress put forward its own view. This view criticized Dyer’s act as inhuman and also said that there was no justification in the introduction of the martial law in Punjab.

Britain expressed deeply regret for the incident:

British Prime Minister Theresa May expressed “regret” in Parliament for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, ahead of the 100th anniversary of the killings on April 13.

Opening the Prime Minister’s Questions with a reference to the massacre, Ms. May quoted Queen Elizabeth’s remarks, calling the incident a “distressing example” of Britain’s past history with India.

“We deeply regret what happened and the suffering caused,” Ms. May said.

In Recent Past, Canada Apologised for 1914 Komagata Maru Incident:

While it is still uncertain whether the Britishers would act contrite for the excesses committed by them, Canada apologised for the 1914 Komagata Maru incident.

In Komagata Maru incident, hundreds of Hindu, Sikh and Muslim immigrants were denied entry into that country and turned away from the port of Vancouver to return to an uncertain and ultimately violent fate in India.

In May 2016, almost 102 years after Canada turned away over 376 migrants, mostly Sikhs from India, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau formally apologised in Parliament for the “great injustice” that had happened due to discriminatory laws of the time.

Trudeau apologised in the House of Commons for the 1914 decision by the then Canadian government to turn away the migrants onboard the ship Komagata Maru after their arrival in Vancouver.

Komagata Maru sailed into Vancouver harbour on May 23, 1914 from Hong Kong, but most of the passengers were eventually turned away on the grounds of the “continuous journey clause” that allowed only travellers on a trip without interruption to land in Canada.

Way Forward:

Relations between the U.K. and India today are friendly and constructive. Yet, that does not mean that an apology would not do good.

We cannot turn back or erase the past, but we can take steps to recognise what happened and to respond in a way that befits a modern relationship between two countries which today enjoy normal and positive diplomatic relations.

The need for the world community to come together to promote everlasting peace in all the corners of the globe and ensure that sustainable development of the planet becomes the watchword at all times and at all levels from schools to summits of global leaders.

Conclusion:

Jallianwala Bagh was a reminder to each one of us as to how hard won & precious our freedom is.

It was an occasion to shed a silent tear for each of the innocent Indians who lost their lives that Baisakhi day in 1919 and a poignant moment of reflection on colonial cruelty & irrational anger.

The Vice President of India expressed hope that this day would inspires us to strive to create a world without oppression & persecution, a world of friendship, peace & progress, a world where all nations stand united to defeat inhuman forces of terror & violence.

It is a day to reaffirm India’s centuries long commitment to the ideal of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.

The Port City of LOTHAL

The Hindu published an article on the ancient port city of Lothal.

About Lothal

• Lothal was a port city that belonged to the HarappanCivilisation (Indus Valley) located in present day Saurashtra, Gujarat.
• The word Lothal, like Mohenjo­daro, means the mound of the dead.
• Lothal is located between the Bhogavo and Sabarmatirivers near the Gulf of Khambat.
• Lothal had the world’s earliest known dock, which connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati River on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra.
• However, this interpretation has been challenged by other archaeologists, who argue that the “dock” was actually an irrigation tank.

• The city is 4500years old and was mathematically planned.
• It had a grid patternwith proper streets crossing atrightangles, drainage systems, and a great bath.
• The city was divided into two parts: the upper town (or citadel) and the lower town.
• There was a bead making factory in Lothal and bead­makerswere highly skilled.
• Lothal was in the thick of Harappanmaritime trade, and beads made from semi­precious stones, terracotta, gold, etc. were popular in areas as far as Sumer (modern­day Iraq), Bahrain and Iran.
• The Unicorn seal was also recovered from Lothal.
• A vase discovered at Lothal, has the painting of a crow standing next to a pitcher with a deer looking back at it which reminds one of the tale of the thirsty crow in the Panchatantra.
• The Lothal site has been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and its application is pending on the tentative list of UNESCO.

Harappan Excavations in Haryana

Harappan Excavations in Haryana

Why in news?

Near-complete skeletal remains of a young male and female have recently been discovered at an archaeological site in Rakhigarhi village in Haryana.

What was the finding?

Rakhigarhi was one of the most prominent sites of the Harappan civilisation.


A team of Indian and South Korean researchers carried out excavations in Rakhigarhi between 2013 and 2016.
The skeletal remains of the couple were discovered from a site where nine graves were unearthed in one trench.
Except for the foot bones, the two skeletons have been found almost entirely intact.
Of the 62 graves discovered in Rakhigarhi, only this one had more than one skeleton and of individuals of the opposite sex, together.
The researchers believe the couple were buried at almost the same time, perhaps even together, following their deaths which could have occurred about 4,700 years ago.
What does the site reveal on marriage?

Most archaeological recoveries show individuals were buried separately in Harappan times.
Joint graves have been very rare, and almost none have been found containing a couple.
The only joint burial of a couple discovered earlier has been from Lothal in Gujarat.
But there, the skeletal remains of the male and female were found placed over one other, indicating that they may have been buried at the same place, but at different times.
In addition, the female skeletal remains were found to have lesions or injury marks.
This has made archaeologists to conclude that her death could have been the result of a social practice such as Sati.
Remains of pots and stone-bead jewellery found close to the burial site of the couple point to the possibility of a ceremonial burial with rituals.
These remains also suggest they belonged to a middle-class family.
The Harappan people were generally known to strictly adhere to only legal relations.
Thus, the fact that the couple were buried in the same pit together could be an indication of societal acceptance of their relationship.
The researchers were inclined to believe that they could have been married.
This which would in turn suggest the possibility that the institution of marriage originated in the Harappan civilisation.
What are the other findings regarding the graves?

Broadly, three types of graves have been discovered at Harappan sites.
Primary grave, the most common type, where archaeologists have found full-body remains of the person placed inside a pit.
Secondary pits were those that contained partial remains of a few bones placed in the pit.
In the third type, instead of skeletal remains there were just some accessories, presumably the belongings of the deceased person. (Perhaps the body could not be ever retrieved, due to deaths caused by wild animals or during wars.)
Most of the graves at the Harappa sites have been that of men, with only 20% of graves are of women, while fewer than that of 1% are of children.
However, excavations of cemeteries so far have found that graves of women were positioned in the centre of the cemetery, and surrounded with bangles, jewellery, and other ornaments.
This could mean that the Harappan society gave a higher status to women.

A Rethink on Nationalism - Tagore's Perspective

A Rethink on Nationalism - Tagore's Perspective

What necessitates a rethink on nationalism?

A series of events, in recent years, in India have come to speak for the whatnots of nationalism.
They include:
Compelling universities to install statues of leaders in the campuses.
Directing Central Universities to ‘proudly’ fly the national flag at gigantic heights.
Making universities adorn the walls of the corridors with portraits of martyr soldiers in the name of ‘Wall of Heroes’ campaign.
Marching with long stretches of the Indian flag for miles in the name of ‘tiranga rallies’.
Parking retired army battle tank in the university campus.
Can such actions kindle meaningful nationalism?

From an individualistic perspective, patriotism and nationalism are not most often real emotions, sentiments or feelings.
They are, in essence, political constructs and political concepts, and their effects are made real only through political action.
Thus, these ideas are to be constantly redefined, debated and reinterpreted as a political community for it to take effect at individual level.
It is thus highly uncertain in a knowledgeful society to instil patriotism by a mere show of ‘nationalist’ objects and symbols.
What are Tagore's views on nationalism?

The great poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore had many anxieties and worries about the very idea of nationalism itself.
He has put forward several stunning and soul-searching reflections through his lectures rendered in India and abroad in this regard.
Tagore ridiculed the idea of taking pride of and basing nationalism on the weaknesses and inefficiencies of a neighbouring country.
He called such actions as 'patriotic arrogance' and as ' organized selfishness'.
Tagore, instead, wished the young minds to aspire for the ‘higher ideals of humanity’.
For Tagore, true nationalism rests on engaging more with India's own deep and troubled history of “social adjustment” and taking pride in it.
It calls for realizing and cherishing the civilizational possibilities and potentials.
How important is freedom of expression in this regard?

For realising Tagore's idea of nationalism by celebrating the self-worth of the nation, it is highly essential to make space for critical reflection on the past.
This is because nationalism and patriotism are not frozen or dead concepts but ideas that require constant nourishment.
In this context, the universities of India should be enabled to function as platforms for exchanging and sharing of ideas and thoughts.
They should be given the freedom to examine and deepen the content of nationalism and patriotism in a meaningful way.
Logically, freedom of thought and speech and space for political activism within campuses are vital to engage the young minds in this process.
All India needs at this juncture are good winning arguments and lots of people to talk, agree and disagree, to make democracy and nationalism more meaningful.

Life of a Buddhist monk

Life of a Buddhist monk

Origin

• Buddhism started in India over 2,600 years ago as a way life that had a potential of transforming a person.
• It is one of the important religions of South and South-Eastern Asian countries.
• The religion is based upon the teachings, life experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, born in circa 563 BCE.
• He was born into royal family of Sakya clan who ruled from Kapilvastu, in Lumbini which is situated near the Indo-Nepal Border.
• At the age of 29, Gautama left home and rejected his life of riches and embraced a lifestyle of asceticism, or extreme self-discipline.
• After 49 consecutive days of meditation, Gautama attained Bodhi (enlightenment) under a pipal tree at Bodhgaya a village in Bihar.
• Buddha gave his first sermon in the village of Sarnath, near the city of Benares in UP. This event is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law).
• He died at the age of 80 in 483 BCE at a place called Kushinagara a town in UP. The event is known as Mahaparinibban.

Tenets of Buddhism

• Buddha asked his followers to avoid the two extremes of indulgence in worldly pleasure and the practice of strict abstinence and asceticism.
• He ascribed instead the 'Madhyam Marg' or the middle path which was to be followed.
• According to him everyone was responsible for their own happiness in life, stressing upon the individualistic component of Buddhism.
• The main teachings of Buddhism are encapsulated in the basic concept of four noble truths or ariya-sachchani and eightfold path or astangika marg.
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• Four noble truths:
  • Suffering (dukkha) is the essence of the world.
  • Every suffering has a cause – Samudya.
  • Suffering could be extinguished – Nirodha.
  • It can be achieved by following the Atthanga Magga (Eight Fold Path).
• Eight Fold Paths: the path consists of various interconnected activities related to knowledge, conduct, and meditative practices.
• • Right view
  • Right intention
  • Right speech
  • Right action
  • Right livelihood
  • Right mindfulness
  • Right effort
  • Right concentration

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• Dukkha and its extinction are central to the Buddha’s doctrine. Suffering is not limited to the actual pain but also to the potential to experience these things.
• The essence of Buddhism is the attainment of enlightenment. It points to a way of life that avoids self-indulgence and self-denial. There is no supreme god or deity in Buddhism.
• The ultimate goal of Buddha’s teaching was the attainment of nibbana which was not a place but an experience, and could be attained in this life.
• Buddha also established code of conduct both for the monastic order and the laymen to follow which are also known as the Five Precepts or Pancasil and refrain from them.
  • Violence
  • stealing
  • sexual misconduct
  • lying or gossip
  • taking intoxicating substances e.g. drugs or drink

Major Buddhist Texts

• The Buddha's teaching was oral. He taught for 45 years, adapting the teaching to suit the group he was addressing.
• The Sangha memorized the teachings, and there were group recitations at festivals and special occasions.
• The teachings were rehearsed and authenticated at the First Council and were divided in Three Pitakas in 483 BC.
• His teachings were written down around 25 B.C.E. in Pali.

Three Pitakas

• The Vinaya Pitaka consists of rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the monastic life of the monks and nuns.
• The Sutta Pitaka consists of the main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha. It is divided into five Nikayas or collections:
  • Digha Nikaya
  • Majjhima Nikaya
  • Samyutta Nikaya
  • Anguttara Nikaya
  • Khuddaka Nikaya
• The Abhidamma Pitaka is a philosophical analysis and systematization of the teaching and the scholarly activity of the monks.
• Other important Buddhist texts include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Milind Panha etc.

Buddhist Councils

• Buddhist Councils marked important turning points in the early Buddhism.
• These councils resulted in sectarian clashes and the eventual Great Schism that resulted in the two major schools, Theravada and Mahayana.
• In total, 4 major Buddhist councils were convened:

First Council

• It was held soon after the Mahaparinirvan of the Buddha, around 483 BC under the patronage of King Ajatshatru and was presided by Mahakasyapa, a monk.
• The council was held in the Sattapani cave at Rajgriha.
• The council was held with the purpose of preserving Buddha’s teachings (Sutta) and rules for disciples. During this council, the teachings of Buddha were divided into three Pitakas.

Second Council

• It was held in Vaishali, a village in Bihar under the patronage of the king Kalasoka in 383 BC. It was presided by Sabakami.

Third Council

• It was held in 250 BC in Patliputra under the patronage of Ashoka and was presided by Moggaliputta Tissa.

Forth Council

• It was held in 72 AD at Kundalvana, Kashmir. It was presided by Vasumitra, while Asvaghosa was his deputy under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan Empire.
• Buddhism was divided into two sects namely Mahayan and Hinayan.

Schools of Buddhism

• Mahayana:
  • It is one of the two main schools of Buddhism.
  • The term Mahayana is a Sanskrit word which literally means "Great Vehicle".
  • It believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and Idol worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature.
  • It originated in northern India and Kashmir and then spread east into Central Asia, East Asia and some areas of Southeast Asia.
  • Buddhist schools embedded in China, Korea, Tibet and Japan belong to the Mahayana tradition.
• Hinayana
  • Literally Lesser vehicle, also known as Abandoned Vehicle or Defective vehicle. It believes in the original teaching of Buddha or Doctrine of elders.
  • It does not believe in Idol worship and tries to attain individual salvation through self discipline and meditation.
  • Theravada is a Hinayana sect.
• Theravada
  • It is the most ancient branch of extant Buddhism today.
  • It remains closest to the original teachings of the Buddha.
  • Theravada Buddhism developed in Sri Lanka and subsequently spread to the rest of Southeast Asia. It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
• Vajrayana
  • Vajrayana means “The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt”, also known as tantric Buddhism.
  • This Buddhist school developed in India around 900 CE.
  • It is grounded on esoteric elements and very complex set of rituals compared with the rest of the Buddhist schools.
• Zen
  • It is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty as the Chan school of Chinese Buddhism in and later developed into various schools.
  • It spread to Japan in 7th century C.E.
  • Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this Buddhist tradition.

Spread of Buddhism

• Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers (upasikas).
• The monks were organized into the Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings.
• The Sangha was governed on democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among its members.
• Owing to the organised efforts made by the Sangha, Buddhism made rapid progress in North India even during Buddha’s life time.
• After the death of Buddha, his followers traversed on his path of meditation and roamed throughout the countryside.
• For 200 years Buddhism remained overshadowed by their Hindu counterparts until the advent of Great Mauryan King – Ashoka.
• After the bloodbath in his Kalinga conquest, emperor Ashoka decided to give up the policy of worldly conquest and adopted Dhamma conquest.
• Ashoka during the third Buddhist council dispatched various Buddhist missions to different areas such as Gandhara, Kashmir, Greece, Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Egypt, and Thailand.
• Through his missionary effort Ashoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. Thus a local religious sect was transformed into a world religion.

Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture

Buddhism has made remarkable contribution to the development of Indian culture:

• The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it became one of the cherished values of our nation.
• Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful pieces of architecture.
• It promoted education through residential universities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila.
• The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism.
• It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

Buddhism as a Way of Soft Diplomacy

• Buddhism in India as a Soft Power is different from the conventional sense of the term. India talks about shared cultural development instead of export of culture.
• The values of peace, accommodation, inclusiveness, and compassion that are part of our societies can be attributed to the influence of the teachings of Lord Buddha and Buddhism.
• The ideals of Buddhism continue to intersect with the political and economic contexts of many Asian nations with 22% of the world’s population.
• Buddhism can act as an intensifying factor for Asian emotional bonding and connectivity as it is embedded into their “nationalistic” thinking and actions.
• Buddhism is not restricted to Asia and has been able to generate a spiritual awakening elsewhere in the world and influenced a stream of philosophical traditions world over.
• India has in its favour at the moment abundance of resources by way of pilgrimage sites, the presence of the Dalai Lama, and international goodwill, as well as the right intentions.

Way Forward

• Effective revitalisation of the Nalanda University project and encouragement of Buddhist studies in well-established universities will bring International community at a common platform.
• The promotion of Buddhist tourism reminiscent of the ‘Incredible India’ campaign is required to popularise India’s association with the faith internationally.
• The government faces the crucial challenge of effective execution. Buddhist diplomacy would go a long way in countering the rise of China, strengthening its relations with Asian countries, and helping it further down the path of its regional and global power ambitions.

Note: Heritage City Development Scheme (HRIDAY) and identification of 3 Buddhist circuits are some of the few initiatives by central government to harness the Buddhist pilgrims to both augment the Tourism and employment opportunities.

UNESCO’s heritage sites related to Buddhism:

• Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar
• Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, MP
• Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya, Bihar
• Ajanta Caves Aurangabad, Maharashtra